Ibn Jubayr and Islam in the West Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Ibn Jubayr and Islam in the West - Assignment Example Menocal (2002) takes note of that he in this way needed to show the significance of Islam in his offer to charm more individuals into it and rescue the circumstance (p. 54-61). Over his movements, Jubayr focuses at the practices which were being polished at this point they were not adequate in the Muslim lessons. For instance, while discussing the Palemo Muslims, he takes note of that they have instructors in their Madrasas yet a similar rehearsed as shippers. He denounced the demonstration. It is imperative to take note of that Jubayr censures most Christian practices and characters. As indicated by Bush-Joseph (2012), for example he depicts King Baldwin IV and his mom as pig and sow individually because of their activities in keeping up Jerusalem and Acre under Christian control (p. 43). Nonetheless, he shows strict resistance while portraying King William whom he says is splendid for his simply direct (p. 44). This shows his judgment of some Christian perspectives isn't one-sided as he is quick to note when there is anything to be complimented about a similar gathering. Seeing his work, he has basically tended to the critical of the Muslim religion in the west during his movements and communication with the

Importance Of Distribution Channels Marketing Essay

Significance Of Distribution Channels Marketing Essay Which means: in the field of showcasing, channels of dispersion demonstrates courses or pathways through which products and enterprises stream, or more from makers to customers. We can characterize officially the conveyance channels as the arrangement of associated promoting foundations partaking in the advertising exercises engaged with the development the progression of products or administrations from the essential makers to extreme purchasers. A channel of dispersion is a way followed in the immediate or circuitous exchange of responsibility for item as it moves from makers to customers. A channel is pipeline through which a streams on its way to the shoppers. The administrator put his items into the pipeline advertising channels and it moves towards different showcasing individuals and arrives at a definitive buyer which is the opposite finish of the channels. Parts of appropriation framework: The appropriation framework includes two parts, for example, underneath. Channels of appropriation Physical appropriation Channels of appropriation: implies a procedure through which the items are moved from the makers to a definitive buyers. It otherwise called promoting channels. The channels individuals, for example, vendors specialists wholesalers and retailers are go betweens in conveyance and they play out all advertising capacities. These channels individuals, for example, vendors operators wholesalers and retailers are go betweens in commitment and attempt perform as indicated by advertising capacities. These go betweens encourage the procedure of trade and make time, spot and ownership utilities through coordinating and arranging process. Arranging empowers meeting or coordinating the gracefully with purchasers request. Physical circulation: it takes care of physical treatment of merchandise and guarantees most extreme clients administrations. It targets offering of conveyance of right products at the night dispersion exercises spread: Request preparing Bundling Warehousing Transportation Stock control Client support. All center in dispersion on plays out these capacity and they guarantee putting the items with in an a careful distance clients want and request. Components of circulation channels: Way: circulation channels are a pathway through which items and administrations stream from producers to clients. Stream: this of products and enterprises in successive and for the most part in directional. Sythesis: it is made out of go-betweens likewise called agents who take an interest in the progression of intentionally. Destinations: in spite of the fact that channels segments to a great extent endeavor to accomplish commonly adequate targets, the maker center is an accomplishing corporate showcasing objective. Pioneer: producer drives the channels parts and their conduct is managed by commonly adequate set of principles, exchange client or potentially contracted specification. Along these lines the organization goes about as the channels subtitle and deals with the pathway. Capacities: the mediators perform such capacities which encourages moves of proprietorship and ownership of products and ventures from advertisers to purchasers. The capacity performed by middle people is been delegated follows: Sifting through: it includes breaking a homogeneous through evaluating or review. Amassing: it includes bringing various like items together into an enormous homogeneous gracefully. This procedure is called focus. Designation: it includes sifting through of aggregated items and comprises of separating a homogeneous flexibly into smacker parcels it is additionally alluded to as the procedure of scattering. Grouping: it includes building a collection of various however maybe a related item to frame a supply of a middle person. At the maker level combination are directed by creation innovation while at the purchaser and, use arrangements are administered by utilization design. These errors in combination make open doors for delegates to take an interest in the channels of appropriation. Significance of appropriation channels: Channels of appropriation for an item the course taken by the title to products they are from the makers to a definitive purchasers. It is significant in light of the fact that item in one spot while the utilization dissipated in many spot. So there is large hole among makers and the customers. So through channels of appropriation can just fill the hole. A channel of circulation associates a connection between the makers and the shoppers. The center man assumes a significant job in shopper direction request. The go betweens are pro in focus evening out and scattering, for example gathers yield of different makers partition the items as indicated by the requirements of the shoppers. scatter this collection to the purchasers. The accomplishment of channels of appropriation [COD] is totally relying on the mediators as they make time and ownership utility. The COD aides in making items accessible at opportune time in the night place and in the correct quality. Showcasing is a complete term, which incorporates dissemination likewise, conveyance is a capacity to appropriation or sub partitioned the makers merchandise to different explicit markets which acquired to every single extreme shopper. Job of channels of dispersion Channel of Distribution assumes a significant job in accomplishing the promoting destinations of an organization. Without a doubt, the producer of item or administrations makes include utility yet the dissemination channels make time and spot utilities. As per Drucker, both the market and dispersion channels are offer more critical than the item. They are essential; the item is optional. In a regularly augmenting market, especially in customer merchandise advertise circulation channels have an unmistakable job in the effective usage of promoting plans and methodologies. These channels playing out the accompanying promoting capacities the apparatus of dispersion. The looking out of purchasers and dealer. Coordinating merchandise to necessities of the market(merchandising) Offering items as groupings bundles of things usable and satisfactory by the purchasers/clients. Convincing and impacting the forthcoming purchasers to support a specific items and its creator [personal selling/deals promotion]. Actualizing estimating systems in such a way, that would be adequate to the purchasers and guarantee compelling dispersion capacities. Taking an interest effectively in the creation and foundation of market for another item. Offering pre-and after deals administration to client Moving of new innovation to the clients alongside the flexibly of items and playing green goals in our nation. Giving feels back data, showcasing knowledge and deals estimating administrations for their areas their providers. Offering credit to retailers and customers. Hazard holding on for references to stock holding transport. Broker IN DISTRIBUTION CHANNELS Shipper go-betweens are those channels part who take both title to and position of products from the procedure part (s) and channels them to the aftereffect. These may arrange as follows: Wholesalers : A dealers wholesalers might be characterized as that middle person who purchases products in mass from makes and sells them to a great extent to resulting go-betweens taking part in the channel, specifically, semi-wholesalers and retailers, they purchase the merchandise and sees the equivalent for their own and hazard. They take title of merchandise and they resale the products at a benefit with commission. Retailers: A retailer might be characterized as that trader delegate who purchases item from going before challes individuals in littler arranged parcels to suit people buyer prerequisites. Retail in the last mediators in the channel of circulation as he is going to offer items to houses holds buyers for non-business use. Retailers are additionally named institutional and non-institutional retailers. The institutional retailers are: Shopper Co-employable stores. Reasonable value shops. Departmental stores. Chain/different stores. Mail request houses. The non-institutional purchasers are: Stress venders. Sellers. Sellers. Operator Intermediaries: Operator Intermediaries are those channel segments who never take title to end generally don't take title to and for the most part don't claim merchandise however simply help makers, dealers mediators and buyers in completing exchanges of offer and buy. There for, in contrast to shipper middle people, they don't accepting or sell products for their own yet simply unite purchasers and merchants so as to strike an exchange. There exist an organization connection between such a middle person makers where in the previous goes about as operator and the last as his head, such specialist go-betweens request orders, now and then with prudence a fixing costs, and decides the term of offer with purchasers. Specialist delegates are typically compensable for their administrations by method of commission on the estimation of offer influenced through them or some other premise normally concurs upon. Specialist middle people might be additionally delegated follows: Sole selling operator. Selling operator. Commission operator. Intermediaries. Channel choice The main issue of divert plan in whether you need direct deal to customer or circuitous deal i.e., deal through agent under the immediate deals the channel issue becomes issues of organization association. On the off chance that the organization picks the aberrant course, it must think about such issue as the sort and number of middlemans and techniques to be utilized in inspiring and controlling them. The choice of these brokers creatures with the information on extreme clients his needs and wants for dissemination administrations. Client comforts and financial matters of select conveyance will decide the quantity of agent utilized. The organization must pick whether to endeavor broad, particular or elite appropriation or blend of each of the three sorts, the choice is made after the cautious examination of item, client, sellers, and friends targets and po

The Fellowship Search The Rule of Two COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY - SIPA Admissions Blog

The Fellowship Search The Rule of Two COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY - SIPA Admissions Blog I remember in college I was always told that for every hour spent in class, I should expect to spend two hours outside of class studying.   I believe that a similar maxim applies to the search for funding to help pay for graduate school.   My belief is that for every hour you spend working on an admission application for graduate school, you should spend at least 2 times the amount of time looking for fellowships. At first this might seem like a very strange thing for me to say so let me provide some background.   First off, most professional schools like SIPA do provide fellowship funding, but nowhere near the amount that would cover all educationally related costs.   Our program is full-time and you need to pay for tuition, books, rent, food, travel, etc. I believe that some people apply for graduate school and count on fellowship aid from the school being available.   While it is true that approximately 70% of eligible second year students at SIPA receive fellowship funding, only approximately 10-15 % of first year students receive SIPA fellowship funding. For many who are admitted without SIPA fellowship funding, the confounding question of how to pay for everything comes up almost immediately.   The good news is that there is evidence that many SIPA applicants are looking for external fellowship funding.   This is evidenced by the fact that each year for the past few years students have brought in close to $5 million total in outside scholarships, fellowships, and grants.   This does not come without a price and that price is time and effort looking for funding. So lets break down an estimate of how many hours go into the application process.   Part 1 of the application process is pretty simple, fill out the online application and submit it, about 30-45 minutes, but lets round up to 1 hour.   You also have to contact those that will be writing letters of recommendation for you, lets say 20 minutes per for a total of 1 hour.   So 2 hours on Part 1. Part 2 is a bit more complex and these are only estimates to get a ballpark figure.   The two required résumés will probably take around 3 hours.   The personal statement is hard to gauge but by the time you are done, three hours is probably a good minimum.   Lets give getting your transcripts in order and uploaded 1 hour.   Finally there are test scores.   This is a toughie because the time spent studying for these exams can be excessive.   Everyone is different, but lets give it a nice round figure of 10 hours for calculation purposes.   So what do we have . . . 1 Hour on the Application 1 Hour on contacting those who will write letters of recommendation 3 Hours on résumé preparation 3 Hours on your personal statement 1 Hour ordering and scanning transcripts for upload 10 Hours on test taking and preparation That puts you at around 19 hours of preparation that go into the application process.   Lets round up and call it 20 hours. Thus my belief is that you should spend a minimum of 40 hours looking for and applying for fellowship opportunities.   How do you do this?   There is no one right answer, sometimes we find out about opportunities by happenstance.   However you can improve your chances by engaging in the following: •  Check out SIPA’s own fellowship database. We search for scholarships for you and post them to the database.   The database is not SIPA specific.   As we search for and hear about funding, we make the information available to you. •  Use RSS  technology to deliver news to your email account or RSS Reader.   RSS allows for news to be delivered to you without having to go look for it every day.   As an example, Gmail accounts have something called the “Alert” tool and I am sure other providers have the same capability.   All you have to do is put in text for searches and a search engine will perform the searches daily  and deliver news to your email account.   You can type in search terms like “Graduate School Scholarships” or “International Affairs Scholarships.”   You can also utilize an RSS reader.   They are free and if you do not know what an RSS reader is, click here for a YouTube tutorial. •  Talk to people you know who have gone to graduate school and find out if they were able to find scholarship opportunities. •  Contact people who are willing to write you a letter of recommendation and have them make multiple copies of the recommendation letter and give them to you in sealed envelops so you are ready if a scholarship opportunity arises and there is a tight deadline. • Speak with people at your undergraduate university alumni relations, career services, faculty members, etc. • Talk to the organization you work for to find out if they sponsor students or have grants for furthering your education. In summary, dont let the funding issue sneak up on you.   Spend adequate time searching for funding sources and to help make your graduate dream a reality.

Botfly Facts and Tips for Removal

The botfly is a type of parasitic fly, best-known for disturbing images of its larval stage in skin and horror stories of infested people. The botfly is any fly from the family Oestridae. The flies are obligate internal mammalian parasites, which means they cant complete their life cycle unless the larvae have a suitable host. The only species of botfly that parasitizes humans is Dermatobia hominis. Like many species of botfly, Dermatobia grows within the skin. However, there are other species that grow within the hosts gut. Fast Facts: Botfly Common Name: Botfly or Bot FlyScientific Name: Family OestridaeAlso Known As: Warble flies, gadflies, heel fliesDistinguishing Features: Hairy fly with a metallic bot appearance. Infestation is characterized by an irritated bump, with a hole in the center for the larval breathing tube. Movement may sometimes be felt within the lump.Size: 12 to 19 mm (Dermatobia hominis)Diet: Larvae require mammalian flesh. Adults do not eat.Lifespan: 20 to 60 days after hatching (Dermatobia hominis)Habitat: The human bot fly lives primarily in Central and South America. Other botfly species are found worldwide.Conservation Status: Not evaluatedKingdom: AnimaliaPhylum: ArthropodaClass: InsectaOrder: DipteraFamily: OestroidaeFun Fact: Botfly larvae are edible and are said to taste like milk. How to Recognize a Botfly With its hairy, striped body, you could say a botfly looks like a cross between a bumblebee and a house fly. Othersv liken a botfly to a living bot or miniature flying robot, because the reflective hairs give the fly a metallic appearance. The human botfly, Dermatobia, has yellow and black bands, but other species have different coloration. The human botfly is about 12-19 mm in length, with hair and spines on its body. The adult lacks biting mouthparts and does not feed. In some species, botfly eggs are easily identified. For example, equine botflies lay eggs that resemble tiny drops of yellow paint on the horses coat. The fly is best known for its larval stage or maggot. Larvae that infest skin grow under the surface, but leave a small opening through which the maggot breathes. The larvae irritate skin, producing a swelling or warble. Dermatobia larvae have spines, which worsen the irritation. Bot fly larvae cause a lump with an open center, through which the breathing tube may be visible. Petruss Where Do Botflies Live? The human botfly lives in Mexico, Central America, and South America. People who live in other areas generally get infected while traveling. Other species of botfly are found across the globe, primarily (but not exclusively) in warm tropical and subtropical regions. These species infest pets, livestock, and wild animals. The Botfly Life Cycle Cuterebra sp. botfly larva extracted from the neck of a dead rabbit. Katja Schulz The bot fly life cycle always involves a mammalian host. Adult flies mate and then the female deposits up to 300 eggs. She may lay eggs directly on the host, but some animals are wary of botflies, so the flies have evolved to use intermediate vectors, including mosquitoes, houseflies, and ticks. If an intermediate is used, the female grasps it, rotates it, and attaches her eggs (under the wings, for flies and mosquitoes). When the botfly or its vector lands on a warm-blooded host, the increased temperature stimulates the eggs to drop onto the skin and burrow into it. The eggs hatch into larvae, which extend a breathing tube up through the skin to exchange oxygen and carbon dioxide. The larvae (instars) grow and molt, finally dropping from the host into the soil to form pupae and molt into adult flies. Some species do not develop in skin, but are ingested and burrow into the hosts intestine. This happens in animals that lick themselves or rub their nose on body parts. After several months to a year, the larvae pass through the feces to complete its maturation process. In most cases, bot flies do not kill their host. However, sometimes the irritation caused by the larvae leads to skin ulceration, which can result in infection and death. How to Remove Botfly Larvae Botfly larvae Hypoderma diana under a deers skin. Avalon_Studio / Getty Images Infestation with larval flies is termed myiasis. While its a characteristic of the botfly life cycle, it actually occurs with other types of flies, too. There are several methods used to remove fly larvae. The preferred method is to apply a topical anesthetic, slightly enlarge the opening for the mouthparts, and use forceps to remove the larvae. Other methods include: Using a venom extractor syringe from a first aid kit to suck the larvae from the skin.Oral dosing with the antiparasitic avermectin, which leads to spontaneous emergence of the larvae.Flooding the opening with iodine, which causes the fly to poke out of the hole, facilitating its removal.Applying the sap of the matatorsalo tree (found in Costa Rica), which kills the larvae, but does not remove it.Sealing the breathing hole with petroleum jelly, white glue mixed with insecticide, or nail polish, which suffocates the larvae. The hole is enlarged and the carcass is removed with forceps or tweezers.Applying adhesive tape to the breathing hole, which sticks to the mouthparts and pulls out the larvae when the tape is removed.Forcefully squeezing the warble from the base to push the larvae through the opening. Killing the larvae before removal, squeezing them out, or pulling them out with tape is not recommended because rupturing the larvae body can cause anaphylactic shock, make removal of the entire body more difficult, and increase chance of infection. How to Avoid a Botfly Infestation The easiest way to avoid getting infested with botflies is to avoid where they live. Since that isnt always practical, the next best tactic is to apply insect repellent to deter flies, as well as mosquitoes, wasps, and ticks that can carry fly eggs. Wearing a hat and clothing with long sleeves and pants helps to minimize exposed skin. Sources Felt, E.P. (1918). Caribou Warble Grubs Edible. Journal of Economic Entomology. 11: 482.Human Bot Fly Myiasis (2010). U.S. Army Public Health Command (provisional), formerly U.S. Army Center for Health Promotion and Preventive Medicine.Mullen, Gary; Durden, Lance, eds. (2009). Medical and Veterinary Entomology. Amsterdam, NL: Academic. ISBN 978-0-12-372500-4.Pape, Thomas (April 2001). Phylogeny of Oestridae (Insecta: Diptera). Systematic Entomology. 26 (2): 133–171. doi:10.1046/j.1365-3113.2001.00143.xPiper, Ross (2007). Human Botfly. Extraordinary Animals: An Encyclopedia of Curious and Unusual Animals. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 192–194. ISBN 0-313-33922-8.

Aboliton Presentation - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 3 Words: 959 Downloads: 8 Date added: 2018/12/29 Category Sociology Essay Type Assignment Level High school Tags: Slavery Essay Did you like this example? Building a bigger jail was not help in correcting the behavior of prisoners who did not even deserve to be in prison. The bigger jail meant that the number of prisoners was to be increased but what was more worrying was the procedure in which they were arrested and charged. The charges were based on reasons that were not justified in law. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Aboliton Presentation" essay for you Create order Instead of the USA government looking at the main causes of big populations in jails they were concerned with building a bigger jail to contain the law breakers, they were busy trying to look for ways of increasing the number of prisoners. Their charges should be based on individualsmisconducts but not political or ideological differences. Prisons should be places to correct those who go wrong or those who go against public policy for their own selfish gains. Race gender and class should not be the determinants of who should be in prison and who should be free but rather individual violation of the law should be the one that should be taken in to account (Dumas, 2016). The prisons in USA were full of people who were criminalized without genuine reasons since in most cases women from minority groups formed the largest populations in those prisons. Discrimination amongst the women saw most of the women of color going to prison. Men were considered as special beings that were easy to re form through religious study and work. Instead of loving the families of the prisoners, they were despised and ignored. Human life is more crucial and should be treated with dignity to enhance quality life. Oppression, discrimination and domination are the major problems that prisoners were facing in jail. The most ironical in this case is that the bigger jail was meant to be built to contain the most vulnerable population such as pregnant women who need care and affection. It is thus important for the government to address the issues resulting to prisonersincrement rather than looking for ways of accommodating in bigger jails. The bigger jail should be built to ease congestion for the already available prisoners but not for containing more prisoners. People should be imprisoned on genuine cause in order to make sure that the populations of prisoners were checked. The resources that would have been committed in constructing the bigger jail and also maintaining those prisons should have been used in rehabilitating the prisoners in order to correct their behaviors. Several issues have been raised in the paper that shows how prisoners and prisons benefited the government. The criminalized could be used for free and cheap labor for the government and the money that was made pay for the labor was drained into personal pockets. Rights of the prisoners were also destroyed since they could not be able to undertake some important things like education while in prison. Visiting the prisoners in jails was another way of reaping the poor off their resources since they could spend substantial amounts of resources and ti me to pay visits to their loved ones. The problem of life in prisons was so unbearable to the prisoners and they always struggled to survive. Based on race, gender, class and sexuality women faced fierce circumstances than men since men were always considered to be more superior to women. White women were treated much better than Latino and black women and that is what accounted for bigger numbers of Latino and black women in prisons. According to Gianesini et al 2015, abolitionists have contributed much in the attaining of equality and order in USA because they have ever been working around the clock to make sure that some of the atrocities that were committed towards minority groups stopped. Discrimination based on race, gender and class has drastically reduced in the USA as a result of the abolitionist. They have tried to make people aware of the possible economic, political and social costs that were likely to be incurred by countries which were dominated by the culture of racism and discrimination. Through their efforts, women in the USA have found and taken their place in the society. The abolitionists thought that constructing of a bigger jail would not mean well for the black Americana, women and the poor since the rich would take advantage and always be reaping from the most disadvantaged in the society. They advocated for the government to seek for ways of addressing the problems that resulted to too man y prisoners being in jail. They argued that, once the causes of people going to prisons were addressed, there will be no need for a bigger jail to contain more prisoners but rather it would ease congestion in the already existing prisoners. The limitations to the abolitionistsproposal were the ignorance by the government to listen to their voices due to the benefits that the government intended to get from the whole project. Due to persistence and resilience, the government had no alternative other than starting to practice what was being proposed by the abolitionists. References Dumas, P. E. (2016). Proslavery Politics after Abolition. In? Proslavery Britain? (pp. 143-162). Palgrave Macmillan, New York. Dumas, P. E. (2016). Proslavery Politics after Abolition. In? Proslavery Britain? (pp. 143-162). Palgrave Macmillan, New York. Gianesini, S., Menegatti, E., Zuolo, M., Tessari, M., Spath, P., Ascanelli, S., Zamboni, P. (2015). Laser-assisted strategy for reflux abolition in a modified CHIVA approach.? Veins and Lymphatics,? 4(2). Gianesini, S., Menegatti, E., Zuolo, M., Tessari, M., Spath, P., Ascanelli, S., Zamboni, P. (2015). Laser-assisted strategy for reflux abolition in a modified CHIVA approach.? Veins and Lymphatics,? 4(2). Tsiachris, D., Silberbauer, J., Maccabelli, G., Oloriz, T., Baratto, F., Mizuno, H., Guarracini, F. (2015). Electroanatomical voltage and morphology characteristics in post-infarction patients undergoing ventricular tachycardia ablation: a pragmatic approach favoring late potentials abolition.? Circulation: Arrhythmia and Electrophysiology, CIRCEP-114.

Organisational Analysis Free Essays

The aim of this essay is to explore and discuss the view that mechanistic and bureaucratic organisations will probably struggle to encourage organisational learning. The structure and learning perspectives of organisational analysis will be used as academic lenses to view and propel this discussion. Relevant theories will be applied to analyse my own organisational experiences (direct and indirect). We will write a custom essay sample on Organisational Analysis or any similar topic only for you Order Now Examples derived from case studies of organisational situations will be looked at so as to make the discussion more cohesive. To begin with definitions of the perspectives in question will be given as to make understanding of the different types of organisations clearer. According to Drummond (2000) mechanical imagery depicts organisations as static machine-like entities operating in a steady and predictable manner. Likewise, the metaphor of bureaucracy suggests that people in organisations are bounded by rules, job descriptions and organisation charts. It is important to note that Taylor’s philosophy is founded upon mechanical imagery. The key concepts in the structural perspective are based on Taylor’s principles of scientific management and Weber’s ideal bureaucracy. Taylor (1911) formalised the principles of scientific management into four objectives which are division of labour, one best way, scientific selection and training and monitor performance. In Taylor’s view, organisations need clearly articulated objectives, sharp divisions of labour, specified hierarchies and responsibilities and formalised systems of control. Taylor saw people as near-automatons (robots), potentially troublesome perhaps, but basically programmable given proper supervision and appropriate incentives. In Taylor’s eyes, the existence of contradiction and ambiguity in organisations were signs of managerial weakness, something which could and should be eliminated. His work is basically a recipe for clarity and control (Drummond, 2000). According to Taylor (1911), output could be increased not by requiring operatives to work harder, but by showing them how to work more efficiently. Taylor came up with scientific management for shop floor workers but I have realised that even the fast food industry has adopted the same kind of set-up. Whilst working in McDonalds on the BigMac grill there was a systematic approach to work and it was timed, 1 – place buns in toaster, 2 – after thirty seconds place burgers on grill, 3 – dress the buns, 4 – place burgers on buns. This routine was done by two people and we would do this all day. Steps 1 and 3 would be done by one person and steps 2 and 4 by another; this was done so that the person handling meat stayed there and not touch the buns. It was like an assembly line because the burgers moved from one employee to the other doing different things but to achieve the same outcome. Constant monitoring was in place as we were given stars according to progress or put simply as to how many different stations you can work at, e. g. a star for each station – tills, chips or chicken. The layout of the kitchen looked like one conveyor belt going round and round. Critics have mentioned that mechanistic approaches work well when the task is straightforward, stable environment, replication, precision and compliance. All these attributes are greatly present in McDonalds and the other fact was that we had to clock in and out we were expected to behave like machines to be predictable and efficient. Extreme forms of the machine metaphor of organisations are seen in the bureaucracies and mass production factories – of which McDonalds is a bit of both. Weber based his ideal bureaucracy model on legal and absolute authority, logic and order. In Weber’s idealised organisational structure, the responsibilities for workers are clearly defined and behaviour is tightly controlled by policies, procedures and rules. To a certain extent organisations should have some sort of bureaucracy and there are a number of bureaucratic structures. Morgan (1993) mentioned that the types of bureaucracy are rigid (person at the top), bureaucracy with task forces and project teams (guided by strict procedures) and bureaucracy with senior management team. The main idea that Weber brought about was the rational type of bureaucracy which is characterised by specialisation, authority hierarchy, operating rules and procedures and impersonality. Now looking at Taylor the characteristics of his organisation are division of management and labour, scientification of work and specialisation of tasks. It is not difficult to note that Taylor was a big influence on Weber and we can conclude that in these types of organisations decision-making is based on fairness and strict procedures. Weber’s theory of organisations reflected an impersonal attitude towards the people in the organisation. Indeed, the work force, with its personal frailties and imperfections, was regarded as a potential detriment to the efficiency of any system. Weber’s idea of rationality was best developed further by Ritzer and coined a new term for it â€Å"McDonaldisation†. According to Ritzer (2007), a society characterised by rationalisation is one which emphasises efficiency, predictability, calculability, substitution of nonhuman for human technology and control over uncertainty. The process of McDonaldisation takes a task and breaks it down into smaller tasks. This is repeated until all tasks have been broken down to the smallest possible level. The resulting tasks are then rationalized to find the single most efficient method for completing each task. All other methods are then deemed inefficient and discarded. McDonalds have standardised their product to make it more efficient, e. g. McDonalds is the same wherever you go – a big mac is still a big mac, we know what to expect in a McDonalds and we know how to behave as well because of that predictability. McDonalds’ environment is structured in a way that there are no surprises to customers. Efficiency is brought about by looking for the best route to getting the best output with least amount of resources and costs i. e. he grills in McDonalds cook meat within seconds and one person needed to operate a grill at any time. This brings us to the notion of control and calculability, there is great reliability on technology rather than humans and emphasis is on quantity rather than quality. Clearly these two approaches to viewing organisations are sort of out-dated and can be detrimental to the progress of an organisation in this day and age. Hence organisations are requi red to be flexible and evolve and also be able to cope with today’s pressures. Organisational learning (OL) is the way forward and aims at making sure that organisations are well equipped for the ever changing market place. Weick and Roberts (1993) mentioned that OL consists of interrelating actions of individuals, which are their â€Å"heedful interrelation† which results in a â€Å"collective mind†. Organisational Learning as the ability of an organisation to gain insight and understanding from experience through experimentation, observation, analysis, and a willingness to examine both successes and failures. Heedful interrelating is made possible via contribution, representation, and subordination. Organisational learning can be done and have a finite outcome. Organisations need to work faster and adapt quickly if they are to survive the current and turbulent environmental changes. Argyrils and Schon identified different types of organisational learning single and double loop learning. Single loop learning is sometimes referred to the lowest level because it only responds to change by detecting errors and then modifying strategies. Double loop learning is an advanced form of single loop learning meaning that it questions if operating norms are appropriate whereas in single loop there is embededness of culture and learned habits become resistant to change and learning. In other words double loop learning is concerned with the why and how to change the organisation while single loop learning is concerned with accepting change without questioning the underlying assumptions and core beliefs. In today’s organisational world knowledge has become really important. It is contributing to high value products and services. The rate of learning has to be greater than the rate of change and learning is the responsibility for everyone in the organisation. Organisational learning links nicely with learning organisations, this type of organisation continuously transforms itself and its context. â€Å"A learning organization is an organisation skilled at creating, acquiring, and transferring knowledge, and at modifying its behaviour to reflect new knowledge and insights. † (Garvin, 1993, p. 80. ) Fincham and Rhodes (2005) mentioned that knowledge management involves organisations developing practices and policies that reward, recognise and harness the storehouse of knowledge of its people continuously innovate and remain creative using brain power as a source of competitive advantage. With the latter in mind it is wise to judge that the old ways of analysing organisations notably the structural perspective hinders organisational learning in a number of ways. Taking McDonalds as the case study it is clear that employees are merely resources which are there for use to maximise profits. Deskilling of workers because of the monotonous and repetitive work which can lead to stress because of emotional labour. Boredom and disassociation with task will creep in leading to alienation and lack of commitment. More routine and rigorous structure limits a lot because it is not good in times of change. There is limited space for creativity, innovation and flexibility because of the fragmented problem solving approach and the disconnected roles and communication. Low level of commitment and loyalty has seen a high staff turnover at McDonalds. Organisations are made up of human beings not machines. Employee alienation and customer dehumanisation is not attractive in any organisation. Bureaucratic organisations will struggle to encourage organisational learning because of their hierarchical structure. Management seem to have all the decision-making powers and this might not sit comfortably with the rest of the employees as they are disempowered. This obviously leads to inefficient decision-making, slow response due to the chain of command and politics is rife. Several critics have noted that the learning organisation model implies that managers must become interested as never before in the process of learning, as well as the results. The central statement of the learning organisation is in two parts: (1) that a key success factor for any business in the age of global competition is its ability to innovate continuously, appropriately, and faster than its rivals, and (2) that can only happen through unleashing the untapped capabilities of all its employees. The learning organisation is definitely a new and significant paradigms shift from the traditional bureaucratic view because it emphasises process over structure and contains a number of components. These components include: a vision of better organisational life, a body management practice guidelines and a network of experts and advocates, a set of mental models regarding individual and social psychology, the sociology of organisations and change and finally a concern for values of wholeness (in preference to fragmentation) and respect for people (Wheatley, 1992). Cravens et al (1996) also noted that organisations need to shift away from the old structural perspective because of the new highly dynamic environments. Many corporations are reducing management layers and organisational bureaucracy in pursuit of rightsizing or the horizontal organisation, concurrent actions include re-engineering business processes followed by organisational redesign and greater use of multifunctional teams, central issues are obtaining precision, flexibility and speed in the execution of programmes and strategies. This shift has also seen the new approach develop powerful information systems and automated knowledge capture permit the empowerment of employees in the management of business processes, priorities are more customer satisfaction and retention through greater organisational responsiveness and competitive advantage for the reformed organisation comes from added-value, created through knowledge feedback and exploitation (Cravens et al, 1996). To be effective in the workplace, we must be better learners; we must become more open to alien ideas and more humble about our own limitations. Tools and techniques cannot be separated from the vision and the values of the learning organisation. (Kofman and Senge, 1995). The learning organization approach is not just about improving productivity and work satisfaction it is also about the fundamental ethics of the workplace and the marketplace. People’s needs have to be considered and should people not be seen as productivity factors; this holistic approach sure does improve conditions and output. A happy worker is a motivated worker. I only lasted six months at McDonalds and the reasons for that are outlined in the essay. References Argyris, C. (1993) On Organizational Learning. Oxford: Blackwell Business/Blackwell Publishers. Cravens, D. W. (1996) New organisational Forms for Competing in Highly Dynamic Environments: The Network Paradigm. British Journal of Management 7: p203-217 Drummond, H. (2000) Introduction to Organisational Behaviour. Oxford: Oxford University Press Encyclopaedia of Small Business (2007) Organization Theory. Encyclopedia. com [Accessed on 12 Dec 2011] http://www. encyclopedia. com Fincham, R and Rhodes P. (2005) Principles of Organizational Behaviour, 4th Ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press Garvin, David A. (1993) â€Å"Building a Learning Organization,† Harvard Business Review, July-Aug: p. 78-91. Kofman, F and Peter, S. (1995) Communities of Commitment: The Heart of Learning Organizations, in Learning Organizations. Sarita Chawla John Renesch, (eds. ), Portland, Productivity Press. Morgan, G. (1993) Imaginisation, London: Sage Ritzer, G. (2007) The McDonaldisation of Society, 5th ed. London: Pine Forge Press Senge, P. (1990) The Fifth Discipline: The Art and Practice of the Learning Organisation, New York: Doubleday. Senge P et al. (1994) The Fifth Discipline Fieldbook, New York: Doubleday Taylor, F. W. (1911) The Principles of Scientific Management. New York: Harper and Row. Wheatley, M. J. (1992) Leadership and the New Science. San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler. How to cite Organisational Analysis, Papers

Dyslexia free essay sample

Dyslexia is a broad terminology defining an unusual approach to processing information and learning disability that impairs a persons fluency or comprehension accuracy in being able to read, and which can manifest itself as a difficulty with phonological awareness, phonological decoding, processing speed, orthographic coding, auditory short-term memory, language skills/verbal comprehension, and/or rapid naming. However dyslexia can increase the ability to think and perceive multi-dimensionally and can help further utilize the brain’s ability to alter and create perceptions (Vellutino, 1979). Dyslexia is different from reading difficulties resulting from other causes, such as a non-neurological deficiency with vision or hearing, or from poor or inadequate reading instruction. It is believed that dyslexia can affect between 5 and 10 percent of a given population although there have been no studies to indicate an accurate percentage (Vellutino, 1979). There are three proposed cognitive subtypes of dyslexia (auditory, visual and attentional), although individual cases of dyslexia are better explained by specific underlying neuropsychological deficits and co-occurring learning disabilities (e. g. attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, math disability, etc. ) Reading disability, or dyslexia, is the most common learning disability. Although it is considered to be a receptive language-based learning disability in the research literature, dyslexia also affects ones expressive language skills. Adult dyslexics can read with good comprehension, but they tend to read more slowly than non-dyslexics and perform more poorly at spelling and nonsense word reading, a measure of phonological awareness. Dyslexia and IQ are not interrelated as a result of cognition developing on its own. The World Federation of Neurology defines dyslexia as a disorder manifested by difficulty in learning to read despite conventional instruction, adequate intelligence and sociocultural opportunity†. The National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke gives the following definition for dyslexia: â€Å"Dyslexia is a brain-based type of learning disability that specifically impairs a persons ability to read. These individuals typically read at levels significantly lower than expected despite having normal intelligence. Although the disorder varies from person to person, common characteristics among people with dyslexia are difficulty with spelling, phonological processing (the manipulation of sounds), and/or rapid visual-verbal responding. In adults, dyslexia usually occurs after a brain injury or in the context of dementia. It can also be inherited in some families and recent studies have identified a number of genes that may predispose an individual to developing dyslexia (Vellutino, 1979). Other published definitions are purely descriptive or embody causal theories. Varying definitions are used for dyslexia from researchers and organizations around the world; it appears that this disorder encompasses a number of reading skills, deficits and difficulties with a number of causes rather than a single condition (Smythe, Everatt amp;Salter). Signs and symptoms Some early symptoms that correlate with a later diagnosis of dyslexia include delays in speech, letter reversal or mirror writing, and being easily distracted by background noise. This pattern of early distractibility is partially explained by the co-occurrence of dyslexia and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Although each disorder occurs in approximately 5% of children, 25-40% of children with either dyslexia or ADHD meet criteria for the other disorder. At later ages symptoms can include a difficulty identifying or generating rhyming words, or counting syllables in words (phonological awareness), a difficulty segmenting words into individual sounds, or blending sounds to make words, a difficulty with word retrieval or naming problems (see anomic aphasia), commonly very poor spelling, which has been called dysorthographia or dysgraphia (orthographic coding), whole-word guesses, and tendencies to omit or add letters or words when writing and reading are considered classic signs. Other classic signs for teenagers and adults with dyslexia include trouble with summarizing a story, memorizing, reading aloud, and learning a foreign language. A common misconception about dyslexia is that dyslexic readers write words backwards or move letters around when reading  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ this only occurs in a very small population of dyslexic readers. Individuals with dyslexia are better identified by reading accuracy, fluency, and writing skills that do not seem to match their level of intelligence from prior observations (Smythe, Everatt amp; Salter, 2005). Cause Theories of dyslexia Research has been trying to find the biological root of dyslexia since it was first identified by Oswald Berkhan in 1881 and the term dyslexia coined in 1887 by Rudolf Berlin. The theories of the etiology of dyslexia have and are evolving with each new generation of dyslexia researchers, and the more recent theories of dyslexia tend to enhance one or more of the older theories as understanding of the nature of dyslexia evolves. (wikipedia. org) Orthographies and dyslexia The complexity of a languages orthography (i. . its conventional spelling system, see orthographic depth  ) has a direct impact upon how difficult it is to learn to read that language. English has a comparatively deep orthography within the Latin alphabet writing system, with a complex orthographic structure that employs spelling patterns at several levels: principally, letter-sound correspondences, syllables, and morphemes. Other languages, such as Spanish, have mostly alphabetic orthogr aphies that employ letter-sound correspondences, so-called shallow orthographies. It is relatively easy to learn to read languages like Spanish; it is much more difficult to learn to read languages with more complex orthographies such as English (Henry, 2005). Logographic writing systems, notably Japanese and Chinese characters, have graphemes that are not linked directly to their pronunciation, which pose a different type of dyslexic difficulty. From a neurological perspective, different types of writing systems (e. g. lphabetic as compared to logographic writing systems) require different neurological pathways in order to read, write, and spell. Because different writing systems require different parts of the brain to process the visual notation of speech, children with reading problems in one language might not have a reading problem in a language with a different orthography. The neurological skills required to perform the tasks of reading, writing, and spelling can vary between different writing systems. As a result, different neurological deficits can cause dyslexic problems in relation to different orthographies (Chung, Ho, Chan, Tsang, amp; Lee, 2006). Cross-cultural prevalence Cross-cultural study of the prevalence of dyslexia is difficult as different scholars and different countries often use different criteria to distinguish the cases of dyslexia in the continuum between the able and delayed readers at schools. According to the existing literature, the prevalence of dyslexia can vary widely between cultures. For example, Christall reports differences between 1% and 33%. According to some researchers, despite the significant differences between the writing systems, Italian, German and English populations suffer similarly from dyslexia. Wikipedia . org Exacerbating conditions and comorbid disorders Several learning disabilities often occur with dyslexia, but it is unclear whether these learning disabilities share underlying neurological causes with dyslexia (Nicolson amp;Fewcett, 2009). These disabilities include: * Dysgraphia  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ a disorder which expresses itself primarily through writing or typing, although in some cases it may also affect eye–hand coordination, direction- or sequence-oriented processes such as tying knots or carrying out a repetitive task. In dyslexia, dysgraphia is often multifactorial, due to impaired letter writing automaticity, finger motor sequencing challenges, organizational and elaborative difficulties, and impaired visual word form which makes it more difficult to retrieve the visual picture of words required for spelling. Dysgraphia is distinct from dyspraxia in that dyspraxia is simply related to motor sequence impairment. * Attention deficit disorder  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ a high degree of co-morbidity has been reported between ADD/ADHD and dyslexia/reading disorders, it occurs in between 12% and 24% of those with dyslexia. [11] * Auditory processing disorder  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ A condition that affects the ability to process auditory information. Auditory processing disorder is a listening disability. [58] It can lead to problems with auditory memory and auditory sequencing. Many people with dyslexia have auditory processing problems and may develop their own logographic cues to compensate for this type of deficit. Auditory processing disorder is recognized as one of the major causes of dyslexia. * Developmental dyspraxia  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ A neurological condition characterized by a marked difficulty in carrying out routine tasks involving balance, fine-motor control, kinesthetic coordination, difficulty in the use of speech sounds, problems with short-term memory and organization are typical of dyspraxia. Neuroanatomy In the area of neurological research into dyslexia, modern neuroimaging techniques such as functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and positron emission tomography (PET) have produced clear evidence of structural differences in the brains of children with reading difficulties. It has been found that people with dyslexia have a deficit in parts of the left hemisphere of the brain involved in reading, which includes the inferior frontal gyrus, inferior parietal lobule, and middle and ventral temporal cortex(Cao et. l. ,2006). Brain activation studies using PET to study language have produced a breakthrough in understanding of the neural basis of language over the past decade. A neural basis for the visual lexicon and for auditory verbal short-term memory components have been proposed, with some implication that the observed neural manifestation of developmental dyslexia is task-specific (i. e. , functional rather than structural) (McCrory, Frith, Brunswick amp; Price, 2009). Dealing with dyslexia depends on several factors. Such as the specific writing system of the country, or the specific strengths of the individual; there is no one specific strategy or set of strategies which will work for all who have dyslexia There have been several special education approaches to help students with dyslexia. Adaptive technology, such as specialized computer software, has resulted in recent innovations helpful to many people with dyslexia. In this field there are several alternate therapies that are suggested for dyslexics. One factor that characterizes the field of dyslexia remediation is the stream of alternative therapies for developmental and learning disabilities. These controversial treatments include nutritional supplements, special diets, homeopathy, and osteopathy/chiropractic manipulation. (Bull, 2008) | Most teaching is geared to remediating specific areas of weakness, such as addressing difficulties with phonetic decoding by providing phonics-based tutoring. Some teaching is geared to specific reading skill areas, such as phonetic decoding; whereas other approaches are more comprehensive in scope, combining techniques to address basic skills along with strategies to improve comprehension and literary appreciation. Many programs are multisensory in design, meaning that instruction includes visual, auditory, and kinesthetic or tactile elements; as it is generally believed that such forms of instruction are more effective for dyslexic learners. Despite claims of some programs to be research based, there is very little empirical or quantitative research supporting the use of any particular approach to reading instruction as compared to another when used with dyslexic children (Connor et al. 2007). Torgesen (2004) emphasized the importance of explicit instruction for remediation as well as the need for intensity that is completely different from regular classroom instruction. To make gains in reading, students need highly structured, sequential interactive activities and close monitoring, directly connecting the known with the new, with sufficient time for practice of new skills to build automaticity. . Dyslexia interventions Some teaching is geared to specific reading skill areas, such as phonetic decoding; whereas other approaches are more comprehensive in scope, combining techniques to address basic skills along with strategies to improve comprehension and literary appreciation. Many programs are multisensory in design, meaning that instruction includes visual, auditory, and kinesthetic or tactile elements; as it is generally believed that such forms of instruction are more effective for dyslexic learners (Henry, 1998). | In 2007 the researchers Joseph Torgesen and Richard Wagner have shown that, when teaching children with reading disabilities, programs including systematic and explicit instruction in phoneme awareness and grapheme-phoneme correspondence are far more successful than programs that do not(Wolf,2007). Academic remediations With appropriate instruction, dyslexics can become skilled readers. Appropriate remedial instruction includes using: * Direct, explicit and comprehensive instruction in the structure of language * A systematic sequence for teaching individual skills Structured information from the simple to the complex * Simultaneous multisensory approaches, including combinations of visual, auditory, and kinesthetic modalities * Interaction between student and teacher during instruction of new skills * Reinforcement throughout the day of newly learned skills * Integrated spelling and handwriting instruction sequence with reading instruction, so that they are mutually reinforcing * Ex tended practice for each skill until the student overlearns the skill * Ongoing review of previously learned skills * Careful pacing to avoid information overload Intensive instruction until reading, spelling and writing skills are at grade level. * Repeated reading to help develop fluency and reading rate * Paired reading to help develop fluency and enhance comprehension (Heward, 2003). Classroom accommodations Although there are no treatments or quick cures for dyslexia there are many techniques that can be used to assist dyslexic students in the classroom while reading skills are being remediated. These include such things as: * Oral testing * Untimed tests * Eliminate or reduce spelling tests * Minimizing the need to read out loud * Accept dictated homework Reduce homework load * Grade on content, not spelling nor handwriting * Reduce copying tasks * Avoid or reduce essay tests * Providing teacher handouts to supplement the notes taken * Using materials that are not visually ove rcrowded * To increase motivation, giving assignments in areas in which the student has a strong interest, for example, sports stories, biographies of inventors or rock musicians, or fiction about teenage issues. * Using appropriate font type and size. It is suggested that Sassoon and Comic Sans may be the easiest to read; Times New Roman may be one of the most difficult to read. The font should not be too small. There are several fonts and typefaces designed for dyslexia including Gill Dyslexic, Read Regular, Lexia Readable, Sylexiad, OpenDyslexic, and Dyslexie. (Alphabet writing systems only)(wikipedia. org). Recent developments Context amp; phonetic spell checkers and grammar checkers combined with text-to-speech and other assistive technologies aimed for help with dyslexia, such as Ghotit Dyslexia software, aim to make writing easier (speedchange. blogspot. com). Individuals with dyslexia require more practice to master skills in their areas of deficit. In the circumstances where typically developing children need 30 to 60 hours training, the number of hours that has resulted in optimistic conclusions concerning the remediation of dyslexia is between 80 and 100 hours, or less if the intervention is started sufficiently early. Only approximately 20% of adults with early reading difficulties have acquired fluent reading skills in adulthood (Lyytinen et. al, 2007). Functional MRI (fMRI) studies have shown neurological changes in dyslexic children and adults who have used phonological interventions, with improved performance on tests of phonemic awareness and text decoding. MRI studies have also shown changes in the brain and spelling improvement of dyslexic children taught spelling phonetically in an orthographic manner (Dahms, 2006). A recent study has shown that the usage of a FM system drives neural plasticity in children with dyslexia. A FM system is a personal assistive listening device, consisting of a wireless microphone worn by the teacher, and a wireless receiver similar to a Bluetooth receiver worn on the ears by the pupil. Measurements of the brain’s response to speech sounds showed that the children who wore the device for one year responded more consistently to the very soft and rapidly changing elements of sounds that help distinguish one consonant from another (cat, bat, pat etc. ). That improved stability was linked with reading improvement based on standardized measures of readability – which, as a long-term benefit, points to brain plasticity (Hornickel, Zecker, Bradow amp; Kraus, 2012). 1. Bottom of Form REFERENCES 21 What Is Dyslexia? Education Research Foundation. Retrieved May, 2013 48 Henry, M K. 2005). The history and structure of the English language. Multisensory Teaching of Basic Language Skills. Baltimore, Maryland: Paul H. Brookes Publishing. 16 Chung KK, Ho CS, Chan DW, Tsang SM, Lee SH (2010). Cognitive profiles of Chinese adolescents with dyslexia. Dyslexia 16 (1): 2–23 54 Nicolson RI, Fawcett AJ (2009). Dyslexia, dysgraphia, procedural learning and the cerebel lum. Cortex 47 (1): 117–27. 79 Cao F, Bitan T, Chou TL, Burman DD, Booth JR ( 2006). Deficient orthographic and phonological representations in children with dyslexia revealed by brain activation pattern. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines 47 (10): 1041–50. 81 McCrory E, Frith U, Brunswick N, Price C (2000). Abnormal functional activation during a simple word repetition task: A PET study of adult dyslexics. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 12 (5): 753–62. Bull L (2008). Survey of complementary and alternative therapies used by children with specific learning difficulties (dyslexia). Int J Lang Commun Disord 44 (2): 1. Connor, C. M. D. ; Morrison, F. J. ; Fishman, B. J. ; Schatschneider, C. ; Underwood, P. (2007). The early years: Algorithm-guided individualized reading instruction. Science 315 (5811): 464–5. Henry, M. K. (1998). Structured, sequential, multisensory teaching: the Orton legacy. Annals of Dyslexia 48: 3–26. 4 Wolf, Maryanne (2007). Proust and the Squid. HarperCollins publishers. 16 speedchange. blogspot. com/2008/02/ghotit. html 18 Lyytinen, Heikki, Erskine, Jane, Aro, Mikko, Richardson, Ulla (2007). Reading and reading disorders. Blackwell Handbook of Language Development. Blackwell. pp. 454–474. 21 Dahms, Joel. (2006). Spelling Out Dyslexia. Northwest Science amp; Technology Hornickel, J. , Zecker, S. G. , Bradlow, A. R. , amp; Kraus, N. (2012). Assistive listening devices drive neuroplasticity in children with dyslexia. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 109(41), 16731-16736. Vellutino, F. R. (1979). Dyslexia: Theory and research (pp. 74-81). Cambridge, MA: MIT press. Smythe, I. , Everatt, J. , amp; Salter, R. (2005). The international book of dyslexia: A guide to practice and resources. Wiley. Torgesen, J. K. (2004). Preventing early reading failure. American Educator, 28(3), 6-9.